Aice Biology Nuclear Division

11/9/2011 AICE  Biology Ch  6  Jones;  Ch  10  RavenContent †¢Ã‚  Replication  and  division  of  nuclei  and  cells †¢Ã‚  Understanding  of  chromosome  behavior  in  mitosis Learning  Outcomes Candidates  should  be  able  to: (a)  explain  the  importance  of  mitosis  in  the  production  of  genetically   identical  cells,  growth,  repair  and  asexual  reproduction; (b)  [PA]  describe,  with  the  aid  of  diagrams,  the  behavior  of   ( )[ ] chromosomes  during  the  mitotic  cell  cycle  and  the  associated   behavior  of  the  nuclear  envelope,  cell  membrane,  centrioles and   spindle  (names  of  the  main  stages  are  expected); (c)  explain  how  uncontrolled  cell  division  can  result  in  cancer  and   identify  factors  that  can  increase  the  chances  of  cancerou s  growth; (d)  explain  the  meanings  of  the  terms  haploid  and  diploid  and  the  need  for   a  reduction  division  (meiosis)  prior  to  fertilization  in  sexual   reproduction; (e)  use  the  knowledge  gained  in  this  section  in  new  situations  or  to  solve   related  problems. ? Multicellular organisms  begin  as  a  single  cell ? Mitosis ? Cell  division ? Also  used  in  repair ? Asexual  reproduction p Cell Size ? Bacteria ? E. Coli  doubles  every  30  minutes ? Heart  &  nervous  system  cells  rarely  divide,  if  at  all ? Skin  cells  and  digestive  tract  cells  divide  throughout  life ? Some  every  6  hours ? Grow  to  a  certain  size  and  stop ? Controls  are  turned  on  and  off ? During  injury,  cells  are  stimulated  and  rapidly  divide  and  grow   †“ produces  new  cells,  Ã‚  . i. e. ealing ? After  healing,  cell  growth  slows  and  returns  to  normal ? Uncontrolled  cell  growth  results  in  cancer Surface Area (length x width x 6) Volume (length x width x height) Ratio of Surface Area to Volume ? Surface  area  and  volume  do  not  increase  at  the  same  rate ? Larger  cells  have  difficulty  exchanging  oxygen  and  waste  in and  out  of  the  cell ? Before  cell  becomes  too  large  it  undergoes  cellular  division   and  forms  2  daughter  cells 1 11/9/2011 Cell Cycle includes G1 phase Two  G  phases   and  S  phase   make  up   Interphase Interphase M phase (Mitosis) M phase S  phase is divided into is divided into G1 phase S phase G2 phase Prophase MetaphaseAnaphase Telophase G2 phase The  cell  has  several  systems  for  interrupting  the  cell  cycle   if  someth ing  goes  wrong†¦ ? Check  point  at  end  of  S  phase ? Monitor  for  presence  of  Okazaki  fragments  on  lagging  strand during  replication ? Cell  is  not  permitted  to  proceed  in  the  cell  cycle  until  fragments ? DNA  Overload ? must  be  enough  DNA  material  in  the  nucleus ? Larger  the  cell  =  information  crisis ? Materials  must  be  able  to  pass  through  the are  gone cytoplasm  quickly ? Speed  is  determined  by  size  of  cell ? Rate  at  which  food  and  oxygen  are  used  is ? DNA  Damage  checkpoints ? Sense  DNA  damage  before  cell  enters  S  phase  (G1 checkpoint) ? During  S  phase ? Read also Lab 2 BiologyAfter  DNA  replication  at  G2 checkpoint ? Spindle  Checkpoints ? Detect  any  failure  of  spindle  fibers ? Detect  improper  alignment  of  spindle  itself  and  block   cytokinesis ? Trigger  apoptosis  if  damage  is  irreparable determined  by  volume ? Volume  increases  faster  than  surface  area  as cell’s  size  increases ? Cell’s  DNA  no  longer  able  to  serve  the  increasing needs  of  the  growing  cell ? Cells  constantly divide ? Dead  cells  replaced   by  new  cells ? Cancer ? mistake  in  cell   cycle ? cancerous  cells   form  tumors   (masses  of  tissue) ? tumors  deprive   normal  cells  of   nutrients 2 11/9/2011 ? Mutagen ? A  factor  that  brings  about  a  mutation ? Genetic ? Mutations ? Oncogene Carcinogen ? Any  agent  that  causes  cancer ? Some  factors  whic h  can  increase  mutation  rates,  thus promoting  cancer ? Ionizing  Radiation:  Ã‚  Xrays,  gamma  rays  particles  from ? Environmental ? cigarette  smoke ? air  and  water  pollution ? UV  radiation  from  the  sun ? viral  infections ? Carcinogen ? Any  substance  that  can  induce  or  promote  cancer ? Most  carcinogens  are  mutagens  (change  in  genes) radioactive  decay? breakdown  of  DNA  strands ? Chemicals:  tobacco  smoke,  certain  dyes ? Virus  Infection:  Lymphoma,  Papilloma viruses ? Hereditary  predisposition  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ genetic  link ? Benign  Tumors  (tumours) ? Do  not  spread  from  their  site  of  origin  but  can  compress nd  displace  surrounding  tissues ? Warts,  ovarian  cysts,  some  brain  tumors ? Malignant ? Cancerous ? Dangerous  and  spread  throughout  the  body ? Invade  other  tissues  and  destroy  them ? Healthy ? Cancer  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ yellow  spots ? Staging  is  important  to  determine  if  the  patient  is potentially  in  a  curable  early  stage  or  otherwise: ? Stage  0  ? Cancer  in  Situ   ? Stage  I  ? Cancer  is  less  than  2  cm. ? Stage  II  ? Cancer  is  between  2  to  5  cm  with  or  without involvement  of  the  glands  in  the  armpit   i l    f   h    l d   i    h    i   ? Stage  III  ? Cancer  is  larger  than  5  cm  or  there  is  extensive involvement  of  the  glands  in  the  armpit ? Stage  IV  ? Cancer  has  spread  outside  the  breast  and nvolves  other  organs  in  the  body Cause  of  1  out  of  17  deaths  in  Britain  in  1990 1  in  13  deaths  in  men;  1  in  27  deaths  in  women ? Stage  I  &  II  are  consider ed  early  and  curable. ? Stage  IV  disease  is  not  curable. 3 11/9/2011 ? Chromosome ? two  identical  halves   connected  together  by  a   centromere ? Ch Chromatid tid ? half  of  one  chromosome ? Contains  one  complete  set   of  information ? Copies  itself  to  make  the   other  chromatid Centromere Two  chromatids,  each  made  of   identical  Ã‚  DNA  molecules ? The  karyotype of  a  normal human  female contains  23   pairs  of  homologous   chromosomes:   ? 22  pairs  of  autosomes ? 1  pair  of  X  chromosomes ? The  karyotype of  a  normal uman  male contains: ? the  same  22  pairs  of  autosomes ? Uncoiled  DNA  called  chromatin? between  cell  divisions ? Happens  during  cell  division ? DNA  wraps  tightly  around  proteins  called  histones ? one  X  chromosome   ? one  Y  chromosome 4 11/9/2011 Sex   chromosomes Spindle forming Centrioles Nuclear envelope Chromatin Centromere Chromosomes (paired chromatids) Centriole Interphase Cytokinesis Telophase Nuclear envelope reforming Prophase p Spindle Centriole Individual chromosomes Metaphase Anaphase ? Daughter  cells  genetically  identical  to  parent  nucleus ? Replacement  /  repair  of  tissues ? Skin ? Lining  of  gut A sample of cytoplasm is removed from a cell in mitosis.The sample is injected into a second cell in G2 of interphase. ? Basis  of  asexual reproduction As a result, the second cell enters mitosis. Cyclins  regulate  the  timing  of  the  cell  cycle  in  eukaryotic  cells 5 11/9/2011 Golgi apparatus produces vesicles ? haploid  (n)  and  diploid  (2n)  Ã‚  chromosomes Two  chromatids,  each  made  of   identical  Ã‚  DNA  molecules Centromere ? reduction  division  (meiosis)  prior  to  fertilization  in  sexual reproduc tion Chapter  Ã‚  17:  Ã‚  Meiosis,  genetics  and  gene  control  goes  into   more  detail Genetic  variation Crossing  over  in   Prophase  I 6 11/9/2011 Maternal set of chromosomes Possibility 1 Paternal set of chromosomes Possibility 2Two equally probable arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II Meiosis II results in four haploid (N) daughter cells. Meiosis I results in two The chromosomes line up in a The sister chromatids haploid (N) daughter cells, similar way to the metaphase separate and move toward each with half the number of stage of mitosis. opposite ends of the cell. chromosomes as the original. Daughter cells Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4 Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids MITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome replication) MEIOSIS Chiasma (site of crossing over) MEIOSIS I ProphaseProphase I Chromosome replication Chromosome replication 2n = 6 Tetrad Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) Chiasma, site of crossing over Metaphase I Tetrad formed by synapsis of homologous chromosomes Metaphase Chromosomes positioned at the metaphase plate Tetrads positioned at the metaphase plate Metaphase I Metaphase II Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase Homologues separate during anaphase I; sister chromatids remain together Anaphase I Telophase I Haploid n=3 Daughter cells of meiosis I MEIOSIS II Daughter cells 2n Daughter cells of mitosis 2n n n n n Daughter cells of meiosis II Recombinant chromosomes Sister chromatids separate during anaphase IIGeneral Biology Ii Study Guide (Online Class)

Has Globalization Transformed International Politics?

Has Globalization transformed International Politics? Introduction A wide debate on how globalization affects global governance has taken place during the last years. Globalists and sceptics have argued about the transformations going on, their nature and importance. As Chanda notes, throughout history, interconnections between states and people have been growing (Chanda, 2008). However, globalization seems to have pushed these changes to a point in which a new global order arises, threatening to transform the essence of international politics. This essay will explore the ideas that have raised around the issue of globalization within international politics, trying to give a response on whether they have suffered a transformation or not. With this purpose, I will first try to give a proper and widely accepted definition of globalization. On a second section, I will look at the different perspectives defended by globalists and sceptics, as the theories proposed by both are quite relevant to understand the reach of the current circumstances. In order to give a response to the question of the title, in a third section I will focus on different areas of global governance, analysing how globalization is supposed to have transformed politics. I will refer to issues of cooperation, sovereignty, welfare, economy and security, considering the arguments of both globalists and sceptics as means to find a conclusive answer. In every section, I will try to give a personal response to every enquiry previously raised. Finally, I will end with a conclusion in which I will try give a general answer to the question on whether globalization has transformed international politics or not. Defining some concepts Defining globalization and its nature seems necessary in order to understand the issues that it has raised. Reaching a consensus on the definition of globalization is quite complicated. As Kiras, (in Baylis, 2005, p. 480) notes, it is a phenomena open to subjective interpretation and, consequently, definitions differ widely. However, it is possible to find some basic characteristics that most theorists have pointed about globalization. As a very simple explanation, Scholte (cited by Mingst, in Vayvr , p. 89) defines globalization as â€Å"the emergence and spread of a supraterritorial dimension of social relations†. Meanwhile, Thomas (cited in Clark, 1998, p. 481) defined it as â€Å"the process whereby power is located in global social formations and expressed through global networks rather than through territorially-based states†. These two general descriptions suggest that globalization is about a vast growth of interconnections between societies, governments and trade actors around the world. Summing both definitions, it can be argued that globalization is as a process that involves a shift in the spatial scale of the human social organization of our world, linking distant communities and expanding the reach of power relations through all the continents. Held (1997, p. 253) that this shift that characterizes globalization involves that day-to-day activities become progressively influenced by events taking place in other places around the planet, even those on the other side. In addition, globalization implies that actions and decisions adopted by local minority groups can have an important impact on the global issues. Thus, globalization is a multidimensional condition. It involves mostly every aspect of life. Social, technological, cultural, economic and political spheres are affected by and take part in the process of globalization. Increasing flows of power, capital, labour force, information and ideas is another of its basic characteristics. Globalization has been usually defined as a matter taking place out of the human control. However, Mingst (1999, p. 9) clarifies that this process is not inexorable and argues that â€Å"what is critical in globalization theory is the recognition that people perceive that this process is actually taking place, although not all are similarly affected†. The reach of globalization Although some consensus can be reached when defining the basic characteristics of globalization and the transformations that it ca uses, the problem comes when trying to specify the reach of its consequences and its real importance. As Rosenberg points the globalization debate is not about the reality of the change. It is about the significance and the nature of these changes that are taking place, and about the driving forces behind them (Rosenberg, 2005, p. 43). There has traditionally been a great division between globalists and sceptics. Globalists maintain that there are important transformations taking place in the world which are leading to a radically different new order. On the other hand, sceptics sustain that these changes are not that significant (Weis, 1999, p. 59). It can be argued that globalists see globalization as a threat for the current order. They think that international politics, global economy and social relations around the world will suffer a huge transformation due to globalization. Meanwhile, sceptics suggest that, although it is true that some changes are taking place, none of them will modify the essence of power and economy relations. There are two basic points in which globalists and sceptics disagree. The first one refers to the dilemma of whether globalization has led to transcendence of territory, meaning that cross border and open-border relations have been substituted by trans-border relations. Sceptics believe that transcendence of territorial space is not possible, as all transactions take place inside national defined borders and are subject to the laws of the state in which they operate (Weis, 2000, p. 61). The second divergence refers to the weight of these new transnational networks within the national and international panorama. Globalists see that there is an increasing influence in all fields, while sceptics state that globalization is mainly a financial phenomenon that affects some capital markets. When referring to international politics, the divergence between globalist and sceptic authors is also notable. Globalists believe that globalization implies a drastic power shift that restricts the capacities or national organisms, institutions and policies and favours the emergence of non-national actors. Even some sceptics have agreed with this theory, suggesting that globalization within international politics is about actors winning or losing power. Furthermore, there is a popular belief which suggests that if global networks exist, national ones are in danger, and thus globalization would cause the erosion of the power of the state (Weis, 2000, p. 4). However, it is not clear whether this theory overemphasises the changes in power without indentifying its sources. Thus, when discussing if globalization has affected International Politics, the main objective is trying to define if states have been more or less affected by the issues that globalization has raised. Of course there is always the trouble of the difficulty that it implies trying to give substance to the notions of ‘moreà ¢â‚¬â„¢ or ‘less’. However, what we can do is looking at different issues within nternational politics and analyzed the way in which globalization has transformed them –consequently changing the way in which states and international actors address these problems. That will be the task for the next section. How has globalization affected international politics? In a wide context, globalization has increased the demand for new policies aiming to address global problems that have appeared, showing certain limitations of current international organizations and states. Globalization has raised the problem of transborder networks becoming more relevant than local, regional and international ones. Together with it, theories on how the authority of states has been eroded have flourished. Governments acting within the power network of international relations seem to have overshadowed their own policy preferences in order to support others and avoid incurring high costs. Thus, economic integration and political interdepence appear to be keys of understanding the changes that globalization is pushing within international politics. Now, I will focus on the main areas in which globalization is sought to have exerted an important influence on the issues of governance. International cooperation Krahmann (2003, p. 29) remarked that many authors emphasize the fact that, through the years, global governance has been concentrated in specific regions, mainly in the developed countries, due to the concentration on power and trade networks in this areas. However, he points that this situation has been gradually shifting into a new panorama. Especially since the end of the Cold War, globaliza tion has been seen as force of change. As Weis also notes, â€Å"an unprecedented widening and deepening of international cooperation has led some to maintain that the nature of the state and of world politics are being fundamentally transformed† (Weis, 1999, p. 6). Globalization is one of the causes of states cooperating over more areas and not monopolizing the control over internal issues when they could have international consequences. International institutions and treaties have multiplied in the last years. Their expanding web has come to regulate all the problems of interstate activities. States have recognized the limitations of their capacities when addressing global problems and, as Krahman states, globalization has contributed to the creation of new networks among governments, implying international organizations, NGOs and even smaller community groups. States have continued to play a central role on international politics. However, there is little doubt that this kind of organizations, together with multinational corporations, are increasingly participating in the regulation and formulation of international policies, promoting cooperation between international actors. The absence of a global authority within international governance is also one of the reasons for the rise in cooperation (Vayrynen, 1999). However, some doubts arise contrary to these evidences. There is not real prove that globalization has been the main cause for this expansion of international organizations. Moreover, it is not clear proliferation of these new entities is really pushing forward a relevant transformation on international politics. In fact, Rosenberg (2005, p. 43) points that rather than states decision-making being undermined by the rise of international organizations, a â€Å"vigorous re-assertion of great power national interests† has taken place. Nevertheless, if globalists were true and globalization is actually transforming cooperation within International Politics, I would argue that this transformation is positive, rather than negative. If that is true, it could be argued that globalization of technologies and information has revealed to the whole world certain issues that were hushed up. It has made governments and people more conscious of problems taking place in countries that they have never thought about. The fast international mobilization after 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean is a good example of how cooperation has improved. Sovereignty Mingst (in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90) defends that globalization of information and economy has challenged the state, as it sees â€Å"its sovereignty undermined and constrained and its structures unable to provide the necessary public goods†. Focusing the issues of sovereignty, Mingst and others have noted that the ability of states to initiate actions has been reduced and its sovereignty has been circumscribed. Krahman (2003, p. 333) pointed that this loss of sovereignty leads to a fragmentation of authority which benefits three entities that become increasingly powerful: subnational groups, upranational organizations and private or voluntary actors –such as NGOs or Transnational Corporations (TNCs). Thus, decision-making capacities which were traditionally taken by national states are increasingly being devolved to specific actors. Globalists have described a picture in which globalized system and people are divided, as citizens are still determined by the st ructure of the state even when their confidence in national sovereignty has been eroded. That would lead to the renaissance of national links and the reaffirmation of cultural, religious or ethnic identities (Castells, 1997, p. 74). Globalists continue of affirm that this situation would lead to the end of the current state-centric world defined by both realists and liberalists (Mingst, in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90). From a more sceptic position, the threat on sovereignty does not seem so disturbing. â€Å"The danger is not that states will end up as marginal institutions, but that meaner, more repressive ways of organizing the state’s role will be accepted as the only way of avoiding the collapse of public institutions†, says Evans (1997, p. 64). The fact that economic or other kind of gains can be pursued without help of sovereignty does not imply that the sovereignty of the state is compromised. Thus, it seems more likely to think of globalization as a tool to reconstitute the capacity of the state, rather than eroding it. Nor even civil society does not seem a likely substitute –as some globalists have pointed (Falk, 2005, p. 222)– for public institutions of government. In fact, the growth of these kinds of new actors requires solid state powers in order to develop properly. Both international and local actors need vigorous capable organizational counterparts in the state. As Evans pointed, â€Å"a move toward less capable and involved states will make it more difficult for civic associations to achieve their goals† (Evans, 1997, p. 82). Rather than globalization challenging the power and the integrity of the state, certain authors see a picture in which both engage in everlasting reciprocal regulation that ends up redefining the state itself (Clark, 1998). Clark remarks that one of the main issues within globalization is its challenge to the realization of democracy. Globalization requires a new way of behaving in the international sphere that cannot consist on merely extending domestic practices to international activities. As he argues, it is not possible to maintain that â€Å"aggregation of democratic states produces democratic multirateralism†. In this context, the theory of the ideological pendulum proposed by Evans (Evans, 1997, p. 83) looks like the better explanation for all this changes. We are witnessing the end of an era in which the states tried to handle with more issues than what they really could. Now the new tendency is the contrary, as there is an excessive pessimism on the capacities of states (Rodrik, 1997a, p. 413). The excessive optimism on the states capabilities is turning into a situation in which it sees necessary ceding part of its sovereignty to other entities. However, this does not mean that sovereignty is in danger, nor even that states will lose their central role. As Chanda suggests, throughout history states have been able to give response to wide or global problems without surrendering or compromising its sovereignty (Chanda, 1998). The dismantling of the welfare state? Taking again in consideration Mingst definition of the challenges of globalization for the state, we see that the second one referred to the guarantees of social welfare that governments can provide. He asserted that in an era of globalization states structures are â€Å"unable to provide the necessary public goods† (Mingst, in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90). Many globalists blame globalization for the dismantling of the welfare state and the expansion of the division between rich and poor in more developed states. In the global era, national economies are exposed to fluctuations that they cannot control and that affect their capacities to provide traditional welfare conditions (Hirst and Thompson, 1999, p. 164). Rieger (in Held and McGrew, 2000) states that there is a real globalization pressure which seeks to minimize welfare state –mainly from private enterprises, especially TNCs. The power of trade unions has been apparently eroded and democracies seem to become more restrictive. Firms that operate in globalized and integrated markets suffer major cost differentials in social benefits and, thus, globalization seems to threaten the welfare state. In addition, in a period of globalization, the number of citizens depending on the welfare states increases –as a consequence of migration and movement of labour force– and governments become unable to afford welfare. Moreover, the integration of markets on global levels leaves no space for welfare states in which the rates of labour productivity and production quality are similar. Thus, globalist authors suggest that the only way for avoiding that globalization ends up with the welfare state is by signing new international social contracts (Castells, 1997, p. 253). If we take in consideration this theory, it would be quite clear that globalization has transformed the way in which governments have to deal with welfare states issues. Moreover, it would mean that the global order is pushing for a renewal of the international policies within this field. However, sceptics have a totally different vision of the problem. Rieger, for instance, admits that although it is possible to see a pressure of globalization on welfare state, this pressure is not unsustainable (in Held and McGrew, 2000). Sceptics argue that globalization has not brought any drastic dismantling of the welfare state. In fact, it seems even more difficult to change the status quo of the welfare state as the pressure of globalization becomes stronger. In fact, studies have demonstrated that globalization does not affect wages, employment or income inequality; especially in countries were the welfare state is strong (Slaughter and Swagel 1997). Consequently, it would be possible to conclude that globalization is not transforming international policies related to the welfare state in a crucial way. Governments are, in fact, renewing their policies constantly, but there is no real evidence that the new global order has reduced states’ capability to provide welfare to its citizens. Political economy Globalization of economy and trade has traditionally been seen as the main responsible for the loss of authority of the states within international politics. Globalists state that prosperity and power are increasingly a consequence of private business between private actors across the boundaries of countries. Transactions taking place inside national borders have lost weight, and thus globalists assert that, within global economy, â€Å"it has become harder to sustain the image of states as the preeminent actors at the global level† (Nettl, cited in Evans, 1997, p. 65). Globalists believe that nowadays private actors make the decisions on which territory is included in the global markets or excluded from the global production networks. Thus, states are seen merely as mediators, which just can try to make their nations attractive for investors, but they cannot run the global economy system. In fact, it has been mentioned that states engaging in policies contraries to the interests of financial actors would be punished with measures such as a decline of their currencies or its access to capital (Evans, 1997, p. 67). Furthermore, globalists state that even the own market can react against hostile decisions of states. â€Å"Capital has long demonstrated willingness and ability to react to what it perceives as unfavourable policies† says Weis (1999, p. 8). Taking these arguments in consideration, it could be argued that globalization has undermined the power of states within political economy, thus radically transforming this aspect of international politics. However, some sceptic authors, such as Rodrik (in Nye, 2000, p. 349) state that economic globalization is far away from being extended as it seems. He think s that â€Å"international economic integration remains remarkably limited†. In fact, some arguments support this theory. There are still great obstacles for the global market, such as tariff barriers or linguistic and cultural differences. National borders have not disappeared, contrary to what most globalist theorists argue, and their restrictions and rules are still relevant in most international transactions. Moreover, the levels of investments in national assets are still higher that internationals. There are still strict restrictions for the mobility of labour around the world. Thus, Rodrik suggests that â€Å"while formal barriers to trade and capital flows have been substantially reduced over the past three decades, international markets for goods, services, and capital are not nearly as thick as they would be under complete integration†. It is possible to argue, as Evans does, that the role of states within international political economy is not undermined by the fact of its becoming increasingly dependent on private actors and global trade. In fact, it has been proved that the bigger is the reliance on trade, the more important is the role of the state (Evans, 1997, p. 68). Thus, powerful and involved states are more likely to participate actively within global markets. Then, the role of the state is not really undermined, and even â€Å"high stateness† can be a competitive advantage. It can be argued that globalization is not responsible for the growth of the multilateral economic order; neither is it a cause of undermining the power of states as international actors. Then, if some crucial transformations have taken place during the last years within international political economy, it would be unfair to blame globalization. Globalization of crime As a final point, I will briefly refer to one of the issues that has been more present within international politics in the last years. National security is one of the main problems pointed to have emerged as a big challenge of globalization. As Kiras (in Baylis, 2005, p. 482) pointed, globalization of technologies and information has improved the capabilities of terrorists. Communication and mobility of people across the borders is increasing, and this gives more facilities for criminals to act. Apart from terrorism, a new global organized crime seems to have emerged, conditioning certain economic and political aspects of international politics and, moreover, destabilizing national governments (Castells, 1997). In fact, there is a growing importance of economic flows with criminal origin –such as those coming from the illegal weapons or drugs markets. Whether globalization can be blamed for these circumstances or not is a difficult question to be answered. However, it is clear that this is one of the issues that have transformed international politics in a more crucial way. Governments are not able to fight with this new global crime by themselves, so they are moving towards multilateralism in foreign policy and defence (Castells, 1997). Whether this multilateralism is something that erodes the autonomy of the states or just a positive cooperative measure is a question that still needs to be answered. Conclusion The debate between globalists and sceptics is still continuing nowadays. However, recent events have come to support the theories of the latter ones. As Rosenberg points, globalization has not transformed the essence of international politics. The new global and radically distinct order that globalists had announced is not a reality. Little essential changes have taken place (Rosenberg, 2005, p. 3). While examining the issues of sovereignty, welfare or trade that globalization has raised, it is possible to perceive that it has pushed some transformations. However, most of them are not significant. Moreover, it is not quite clear in what grade globalization is responsible for them. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the global order is not undermining the power of the state. Instead, states that are strong and participative seem to be more powerful and play a more important role within the issues of globalization. As Clark stated, instead of globalization eroding the capacities of states, it is more appropriate to sustain that globalization in a process parallel to an apparent reconstruction of the state (Clark, 1998, p. 491). International politics are suffering a shift on the policies that they need to apply in fields like welfare and finance. Although this shift does not affect the nature of international politics, it seems necessary to preserve the predominant position of traditional states. New private and public powers are arising, and governments need to learn to deal with them in order to keep their status. There are also new threats that states cannot fight for themselves. Thus a growing cooperation is necessary to resolve the problems of the world. Bibliography Aas, K. F. (2007), Globalization and Crime, SAGE Publications, London Baylis, J. And Smith, S. (2005, 3rd edition), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, Oxford University Press Castells, M. (1997), The Power of Identity, Blackwell Publishers Clark, I. (1998), Beyond the Great Divide: globalization and the theory of international relations, Review of International Studies, 24, pp. 479-498 Chanda, N. (2008), Runaway globalization without governance, Global Governance, 14 (2) Evans P. (1997), The Eclipse of the State? , World Politics, n. 50 Falk, R. (2005), Reimagining the Governance of Globalization, in Appelbaum, R. and Robinson, W. Critical Globalization Studies, Routledge Held, D. (1997), Democracy and Globalization, Global Governance, 3, pp. 251-267 Held, D. and McGrew A. (2000), The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate, Polity Press Hirst, P. and Thompson, G. (1999, 2nd edition), Globalization in question, Polity Press Krahmann E. (2003), National, Regional and Global Governance : One Phenomenon or Many, Global Governance, 9 Mingst, K. A. (1999), Global Governance: The American Perspective, in Vayrinen, R. , Globalization and Global Governance, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Nye, J. S. and Donahue, J. D. (2000), Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press Rieger, E. and Leibfried, S. (2000), Welfare State Limits to Globalization, in Held, D. and McGrew A. , The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate, Polity Press Rodrik, D. (1997a), The Paradoxes of the Successful State, European Economic Review, Volume 41, Issues 3-5, April Rodrik, D. (1997b), Sense and Nonsense in the Globalization Debate, Foreign Policy Rodrik, D. (2000), Governance of Economic Globalization, in Nye, J. S. and Donahue, J. D. Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press Rosenberg, J. (2005), Globalisation Theory: A Post Mortem, International Politics Sassen, S. (1996), Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization, New York Slaughter, M. J. and Swagel, P. (1997) Does Globalization Lower Wages and Export Jobs? , International Monetary Fund available at http://www. imf. org/external/pubs/ft/issues11 (accessed 7 Dec ember 2009) Vayrynen, R. (1999), Globalization and Global Governance, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Weis, L. (1999), Globalization and National Governance, Review of International Politics

Reflective Journal Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Reflective Journal - Research Proposal Example Writing short passages are essential, these are permanent records, preplanned, and arranged systematically. Writers should be aware of the audience and the purpose of writing, as different texts contain particular structures (the way it is organized and its contents or elements Concept of register in writing: Our knowledge of register, a variety of language fitting a particular context, tells us the difference in context the language fits. A particular genre draws on the linguistic resources of the appropriate register or a register helps us to clarify the relationship between individuals, and identifies the tone of the communication both in writing and speaking.. Major genre groups are Narrative/story genres are (recounts, anecdote, new story, biography/autobiography, myth legend, fable, etc.) transactional genres (service/goods transaction, written, consultation, interview, and others) procedural genres instructions, directions, recipe, process explanation, etc.), factual genres(description, report, explanation, etc.), persuasive genres (argument, advertisement/feature article, discussion, appraisal/evaluation) IN TESOL a mistake is a specific case where a known rule is broken by a native speaker. Whereas, an error is a regular and systematic occurrence which indicate that a particular rule is not known or available for use. For making the learner error free in punctuations, structure, and grammar, TESOL teachers should keep conventional tools handy, and experiment with more conclusive strategies. pedagogic aspects (form, function, concept, likely error etc) of the verb phrase in English including: o modal verbs (for obligation, permission, deduction, ability etc) Model verbs are a complex area of English, and different modals can have similar meanings (e.g must and have to) or different meanings (eg. You must study and that must be nice). Modals are auxiliary verbs, such as should, must, can, etc., that indicate speaker's attitude towards rest of the sentence. The auxiliary verb may express certainty, probability, or possibility, and usually have a present and past form. Modal verbs and their forms in the past, namely will, must, should, may might, could are used to express obligations, permission, deduction, ability, etc. o future tenses Future tense, with different forms, are used to express what is intended for the future, and a particular future form may express different concepts in different situations. Future forms include: will + infinitive, going to + infinitive, present continuous, present simple, future perfect, and future continuous o hypothetical forms (conditionals etc) Using simple, present, simple past, past simple or past perfect form of the verb in a sentence indicate a hypothetical

The accounting environment in the USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The accounting environment in the USA - Essay Example The amount of inventory in the warehouse of a company can decrease in value as prices of goods can go down in price due to market fluctuations. A good example of this phenomenon can be visualized in agricultural crops. These crops vary in price on a daily basis as their prices are traded in the open market as commodities. In any type of industry the market of value of inventory can vary and as a consequence it can distort the current assets account balance. Inventory is part of current assets. Accountants should always keep in mind the conservatism principle which states that when in doubt an accountant should choose the method that is less likely to overstate the assets or income of a company. The application of lower of cost or market is aligned with the conservatism constraint. Valuing inventory at lower of cost or market implies writing down inventory when the value of inventory is lower than its costs. There is a contra account in the balance sheet called Allowance to Reduce Inventory to LCM that is used to make the necessary adjustment. â€Å"This balance sheet account is used to report the amount that the inventory's market amount is below the inventory's cost amount†. The LCM method defines the market price of an item as the current replacement cost. An example of how to apply the method and its corresponding journal entry is illustrated below: Inventory value = $10000 Current replacement cost = $9500 $10000 – $9500 = $500 The $500 is considered a loss Journal Entry: Loss from Reducing Inventory to LCM $500 Allowance to Reduce Inventory to LCM $500 Capitalizing interest on building construction One of the characteristics of the construction industry is that projects take a long time to complete. Typically in business interest costs associ ated with financing any project are categorized as an expense. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) created a special rule for the construction industry that allows accountants to capitalize interest on construction project. FASB Statement No. 34 stipulates the guidelines that must be followed to calculate capitalization of interest in construction projects. It also states the disclosure requirements for capitalized interest in the financial statements of a company. The interest on any loan may only be capitalized while the construction occurs. There are certain criteria that must be met in order to be able to capitalize construction interest. The three criteria are: qualifying expenditures must already have been made activities to prepare assets for use must be in progress The firm must actually be paying interest (Young, 1994). At the moment that any of these three conditions seize to exist the company becomes ineligible to capitalize interest associated with constructi on projects. Any inventory used that is routinely manufactured or produced on a repetitive basis does not qualify for capitalization of interest if the inventory is purchased through debt (Young, 1994). Recording

Corrections and community justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Corrections and community justice - Essay Example The warrant is served to the suspect verbally, and a copy given to him and arrest follows. Customarily, the suspect is arraigned before a judge a day or two following the issue of the warrant. Defense attorney represents the suspect, while the solicitor represents the state. The preliminary hearing involves submission of facts of the case and the determination by the judge, if the case can proceed to trial. At the plea stage, which follows preliminary hearings, the suspect is formally charged. The second hearing is conducted in front of grand jury, consisting of eighteen natives after which a trial is held either before a judge and the jury, or before a judge only. If a â€Å"guilty† plea is arrived at, the judge passes a sentence on the accused, but in cases dealing with death penalties, the jury is mandated to pass the sentence. In a criminal court, the government (the plaintiff) institutes a suit against a person(s) suspected of going against the law. There should be certainty for a â€Å"guilty† verdict to be passed. On the other hand, in a contemporary court, an individual (plaintiff) institutes legal proceedings against another (defendant). Reasonable doubt is never a

William Caslon typeface analysis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

William Caslon typeface analysis - Term Paper Example The process of type founding by William Caslon constituted four separate tasks. The first stage in this intricate step was punch cutting which involved carving the mirror image of a character, letter or figure in relief. This process was done on the end of shank annealed steal that was later tempered. The second process in production of type entailed chasing which involved ornamenting metal by tools and a hammer crafted for indenting. Following this process was casting which entailed placing the matrix in mold hand and consequently the chamber mold was realigned to fit the dimensions of the cast character. The eventual pieces were designed to be a three dimensional product of the character cast from the punch. The final operation consisted of dressing the type which included type press preparation such as breaking off the jet and filing off mold protrusions. It is of importance to note that the Caslon types symbolized functionality, strength and presence of legibility. Calson proceeded to cut very many non-Latin types such as Armenian, Coptic, Arabic, Greek and Hebrew. Some of the notable fonts by William Caslon included the ; Big Caslon, Caslon Graphique, Caslon Old Face, ITC Caslon no. 224, ITC Founders Caslon, ITC Founder’s Caslon Ornaments. The fonts designed by Caslon exhibited a modelling delicacy and a design variety that was not evident in the Dutch types. One of the distinct differences between the Caslon types and Dutch types was monotony. In effect, the Caslon types were less monotonous compared to the Dutch types which were characteristically monotonous. To this end, the smaller size Caslon letters when analyzed were not perfect individually. However, their mass effect was agreeable. The Caslon Old style no. 471 is regarded as the metal version that is considerably related to William Caslon’s originals. Furthermore, the Caslon Old style Italics and Romans are produced from the original

Provide a briefing note to the Secretary of State for Energy and Essay

Provide a briefing note to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change in advance of the preparation of a new Energy Bill - Essay Example s relied on the provisions of the Energy White Paper of 2007, Energy White Paper of 2003, the Energy Review Report of 2006 and the Low Carbon Transition Plan of July 2009 Previous energy Bills in the United Kingdom have contributed to sustainable use of energy through various means. The energy laws have helped to regulate the taxation and use of energy in terms of both renewable and non-renewable energy. They have provided the legal provisions that have regulation extraction of energy resources, manufacturing, transportation and selling of energy products in the country (Makuch & Pereira, 2012). This means that the energy marketers and distributors in the country operate within limits of energy laws ensuring that they do not exploit citizens or overuse energy resources that could lead to environmental problems and energy depletion. Previous laws have helped in the above issues as energy use has increased over the years as shown in the chart below An important aspect of the previous energy laws and bills is that they have helped in providing an environment that provides for competition in the energy sector among energy firms, both large and small. This has helped in stabilizing prices of energy products for the consumer because the competition has ensured that companies provide competitive prices to woo consumers to buy their brands. The energy laws recognize that energy is required in all sectors of the economy and takes into account issues of production and distribution of various forms of energy and future requirements of the same. The challenges that the previous energy bulls have failed to address include Previous energy bills in the UK have met several criticisms with regard to a variety of issues. First, UK energy bills have been criticised for encouraging waste of energy. Energy laws in UK have been insufficient in ensuring that it meets the standards of the EU energy-saving laws. The main reason for this has been poor implementation of the bills put in

Business math project Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business math project - Speech or Presentation Example d function implies that if the competitors come together into a merger, the resultant monopolist product may not have more brands than the merged firm may, because more brand competition is internal. Nevertheless, it is not likely that just a single brand will be developed after the competitors’ merger. Producing more brands with a wide range of prices and properties is one technique for breaking up the market demand into sets of different clients with a variety of price elasticity, which also serves to stimulate the overall market demand. The monopolist product function is made up of the quantity or the number of brands in the market, the average cost per unit of the brands produced and the price or the value of the product brands. The questions will thus be solved by inputting the prices in the Mathematica codes and then applying the demand function below: to generate the 2 dimensional plotting of the first question. In the second question, the data input in Mathematica code s will be the quantity of products. In Question 3, the data input will be the same as in question 1 but will have a fixed price of 1 in calculating the demand elasticity. Question 4 will be treated in the same way as question 2 but will have a fixed quantity of 1 to calculating the marginal cost. Question 5 will calculate the profit function as the difference between the price and the marginal cost of the products. The sixth question will produce the 3D plots of the profit function, with two input variables, the prices and the product quantities. From this, it will be possible to locate the maximum profit to answer question 9, and select the quantity and the price that produces it, to answer question 7 and 8 respectively. The study was successful in testing all the numerical questions presented. From the results generated, it was clearly evident that the price and the demand were inversely proportional. As the price increased, the demand for the products was seen to be reducing. At the same

The Typical American Essay Example for Free

The Typical American Essay Donald Trump has done much for the image of the typical American through his show, â€Å"The Apprentice,† and its focus on brand marketing to an individual. Throughout time, especially when it comes to advertising, the focus has been to nail down, specifically, what it is that makes a typical American a typical American. But are those traits just stereotypical of Americans as they used to be? Or do they suggest something much deeper about the American public—that behavior as a consumer can be actually be targeted, without much overall difficulty, using a combination of internal and external marketing by focusing on stereotypical beliefs, psychological profiles, and an understanding of basic human intelligence. To begin with, internal marketing focuses exclusively on the individual â€Å"you† of a company, striving to spotlight on their motivations and beliefs while gaining trust and reputation. For example, Ford Motor Company would use internal marketing to evaluate the needs of their employees and to become a better employer for those needs. This can be seen in media advertising as well, as more and more commercials focus on the audience â€Å"you.† Everyone can relate to the stressed out mom with the Renuzit spray as she cleans up her kid’s soccer mess. While the consumer here is not part of the Renuzit company, they feel, by the method of advertising, that they relate to the message presented. External marketing is more about the business itself and how they manage to position themselves in front of the consumer. This medium of marketing is more difficult to qualify because it is in the presentation itself that makes this mode effective. For example, Ford Motor Company is advertising at a dog show and at a car show. At the dog show, they will surely be overlooked as anything more than annoying sales people because their method of presentation holds no true meaning for them, while the car show would explode with excited consumers because they are positioned in front of their target audience. So, to be honest, the factor that has the greatest influence on an average consumer (like me) is both internal and external marketing. It would be hard to feel the deep Renuzit â€Å"homey† vibe when watching a stressful horror flick on the Sci Fi channel, but it would be a much more well received bit of advertising if the Learning Channel was on and Martha Stewart was cooking something yummy in the kitchen. Even in something so small and simple as random household commercial, both internal and external marketing are essential to see decent results. Moreover, the internet has taken this idea to a whole new level in advertising. It used to be that a basic site could attract visitors simply because it existed out there in the vast world wide web. But things have changed. Now, for a website to have any luck, whatsoever, they have to not only have targeted content, but also targeted keywords. Whole businesses have sprung up claiming to be able to properly optimize a website for the search engines—their philosophy: target a consumer based on stereotypical beliefs, psychological profiles, and an understanding of basic human intelligence in how people go about searching for the information they are hoping to find (Word Partners Ink). This process is just as complicated as it is for traditional advertisers because the potential visitors have to be exclusively targeted to get any results. This means that if a website is selling cat food, they have to use keyword rich content illustrating the most common search terms for cat food. Maybe name brands, or maybe even breed. The fact is that even as technology grows and looking at Americans as â€Å"typical† by using stereotypical methods sounds politically incorrect, it is still the only method for effective sales, even in the online media. According to the article by Anne Cronin (written more than a decade ago) the â€Å"typical American† exhibits certain identifiable traits. Since some of the traits are so outlandishly true, it’s best to go over each set and compare to the â€Å"typical American† now. Cronin begins with a â€Å"white woman who is 32.7 years old, [who is] married and a mother, owns a home in the suburbs with three bedrooms, two telephones, no answering machine, with two TV sets, cable, and a VCR.† This woman is the woman of â€Å"Stepford Wives.† Her home is her castle and she is still young enough to feel beautiful while she keeps things clean. This woman could still exist today, but with a few modifications. It would be hard to find a household without two TV’s (most probably have four, with two computers), but the telephones would be cell phones, as even kids as young as nine are getting them now that companies like Disney and Verizon have hit on that need, and the woman would probably be divorced with two kids while still living in the suburbs off a nice alimony check. Cronin continues with the woman’s lifestyle: â€Å"she works for a private company as a clerical worker, she (and probably her husband) does not own a gun, does not smoke, does not know anyone with AIDS, spent two hours driving yesterday (probably errands, maybe work), and she read a newspaper today.† The hilarious part is that this woman probably does not exist today. If she doesn’t smoke, she probably knows someone who either has AIDS or has died from AIDS, and if she isn’t a clerical worker, she probably didn’t read the newspaper today. Cronin’s article attempts to pinpoint the â€Å"typical American† woman from the early nineties. Things have definitely changed, but her reasoning is sound. And, her theories could still be applied to identify the traits of the typical American today by focusing on beliefs, psychological profiles, and an understanding on basic human understanding. The world has changed drastically in the last decade. War, tragedy, terrorism, and disease are vastly more prominent than they were just ten years ago. With the hit on 9/11, not only was security throughout the nation revamped, but so was the American consciousness; meaning that men and women had to take a broader understanding of their world if they wanted to survive it. And, perhaps that understanding is a bit more cynical than it used to be. Suburbia has essentially been replaced with powerful business women and internet entrepreneurs. Analyzing and pinpointing the typical American has become something of a carnival game on the internet on OK Cupid’s website. Here, a visitor can take the â€Å"Are you a Typical American test† to find out how they rank as a typical American. The questions are quite illuminating, as are the results. There are 25 questions in all (and a screen name must be chosen at the end to view all results), much reminiscent of the questions found on the â€Å"Are you Smarter than a Fifth Grader† TV show hosted by Jeff Foxworthy. But this doesn’t mean that they are easy. In fact, many of the questions have more to do with lifestyle than outside knowledge (though many United States history questions are asked), which makes for interesting criteria for the â€Å"typical American.† After taking the test, despite being somewhat mortified by the results, it became clear just how easy it is to call a typical American a â€Å"typical American.† Even shows like â€Å"Millionaire† and â€Å"Identity† (to the far extreme) hit on this ideal: that the typical American exhibits particular traits, mainly targeted by how much they weigh, how much fast food they eat, how much they watch television, and how much they know about their country. Sadly, that’s all it takes. A marketing genius would be hard pressed to find any other determining factors (they might throw in homey comfort and hobbies, but that’s about it). Overall, pinpointing the traits of the typical American has become something of a pastime for â€Å"typical Americans.† With the rise of the internet and TV game shows, this ideal has hit a new high. But, so has the effects on the marketing and advertising world. As the world changes, and the typical American changes with it, so must advertising and how those traits are analyzed and determined. However, while these things change, even drastically, the methods for identifying the traits of the typical American have not. Still, no matter the mode, the method must focus on beliefs, psychological profiling, and a basic understanding on how the average American thinks. Works Cited. Cronin, Anne. â€Å"Typical American.† New York Times. 1992, pg ES5. OK Cupid. â€Å"Are you the Typical American Test.† 2007 Human Rainbow. http://www.okcupid.com/tests/take Word Partners Ink. â€Å"Search Engine Optimization.† 2007 Word Partners Ink. http://wordpartnersink.tripod.com/searchengineoptimization

Development of Space Power in India

Development of Space Power in India SPACE POWER- A FORCE MULTIPLIER â€Å"The vastness of space is a key factor in the war-form of the future† Alvin Heidi Toffler[1] CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Space has always been a matter of great interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. The space warfare is as old as Indian mythology. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[2]. In the 17th century, astronomers pointed a new device called the telescope at the heavens and made startling discoveries[3]. On 03 Oct 1942, German scientists launched an A-4 rocket, which travelled a distance of 190 km and reached an altitude of over 80 km. Orbital operations started with Soviet Sputnik-1 satellite in 1957[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[5] Since then, the utilisation of space has been a matter of debate and controversies as far as direct war fighting military roles and missions are concerned. However, the support operations like Intelligence, communication and reconnaissance, which came first, did not face much of resistance. The benefits possible from the space-based support operations were realised very quickly and these operations were extended further to surveillance, mapping, navigation, ground mapping, environmental monitoring etc. Space systems have brought better intelligence and stronger defences by enabling the collection of new types of data and information; significantly increasing communications capabilities and capacities; revolutionizing precision navigation and timing; enriching science; establishing new markets; providing safer air, land, and sea transportation; and enabling faster disaster relief as well as more effective civil planning[6]. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[7] Also Knowledge is the purest form of power and is the reason that overhead surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence-gathering efforts are so important in both war and peace. Information delivered from above can be used to strengthen a friendly regime, discredit an enemy regime, or directly attack the morale of an adversarys frontline troops. They can detect missile launches, nuclear tests and they can provide secure real time communications all over the world. The resolution available with satellite reconnaissance is more than adequate for military needs. The accuracy of GPS is known to us all. In le ss hostile circumstances, the information might consist of humanitarian warnings about impending natural disasters or news about disaster-relief efforts[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Com munications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. In Indias context which has belligerent neighbours, space based capabilities are the definite force multiplier. In fact, military strategist call space the new ‘High Ground. Which will bring in revolutionary changes in military affairs. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[11] Space begins where satellites can maintain orbit (81 miles) and extends to infinity.[12] Power is control or authority to influence; the ability to produce an act or event.[13] And Space power is a nations ability to exploit and control the space medium to support and achieve national goals.[14] Gravity The driving force behind all orbital dynamics is the force of gravity and is defined by the law of universal Gravitation given by Isaac Newton in 1687. It states â€Å" Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particle†.[15] Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[16] Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between the orbital plane of the satellite and the plane of the Earths equator. BY convention, it is measured anticlockwise from the equator to the orbital plane at the point where the satellite crosses, passing to north[17]. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as ‘polar orbits. ‘Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are ‘inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ‘ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be ‘seen by satelli te sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. Orbital Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to ‘decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[18] Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. Sun Synchronous orbit It is the orbit where in the satellite is used for surveillance at optical wave length and whose orbital motion will bring it periodically over the same area of interest at the same sunlight conditions from day to day. These orbital planes are called as Sun Synchronous orbit[19]. These are low earth orbits inclined at about 98 °. Semi-synchronous Orbit. This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. Molniya Orbit. This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[20] Geostationary Satellite As the orbital height increases, so orbital period increases. If the orbital height increases to 35875km, the orbital period will be synchronised with the rotation rate of the Earth. Such a satellite would be called a geosynchronous satellite. If these satellite have zero degree of inclination such that these satellites will appear stationary in the sky over a point on the equator to an observer on earth. Such a satellite would be called a geostationary satellite[21]. This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small ‘ of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. Geosynchronous Orbit has li ttle military or other uses because of its large ‘ of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term ‘geostationary, is tending to be replaced by ‘geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a ‘strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[22] Super-synchronous Orbit. The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[23] (a) Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[24]. It is through this zone that ballistic missiles must proceed during and after their boost phase and are most vulnerable to antiballistic missile (ABM) systems. However, minimum long-range effects from nuclear explosions are found at altitudes between 50 and 150 kilometers: above 50 kilometers, the mechanical effects of shockwave pressures almost disappear as a consequence of the relatively low air density; below 150 kilometers, the air density is still high enough to reduce the range of corpuscular radiation through di spersion and absorption so that the long-range thermal effect is also not maximum.[25] Therefore, even very powerful nuclear devises in the megaton range must be detonated at relatively close proximity to their intended target at NEO to be effective, although electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects could seriously disrupt unhardened electronic systems at long-range distances. Nevertheless, targets at NEO, compared to those at higher gravity well zones, are relatively vulnerable to Earth-based intervention because of an inherently short warning time available for the implementation of countermeasures and the minimal amount of energy that the enemy must expend to reach this zone. Conversely, a weapon system such as a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) at NEO could attack targets on Earth with a minimum of warning[26]. (b) (c) The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[27]. (d) (e) LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. (f) (g) The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[28] Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[29]. The difference between space and the outer space is generally not recognised. But the former term is wider than the latter and means the whole universe including the earth while outer space means all spaces other than the earth. In fact, outer space begins where the earths atmosphere ends and extends on in all directions infinitely. The upper limit of the air space constitutes the lowest limit of outer space. The outer space in a broader sense also consists of the entire space beyond celestial bodies and their atmosphere. Celestial bodies include all land masses in space and their atmosphere except Earth. Therefore, air space is excluded from outer space. The diff erence between space and outer space is insignificant in so far as the exploration and use of such domain is concerned[30]. (h) The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[31]. (i) (j) During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[32]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[33] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two distin ct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[34] There are few of these set of fundamental issues which require to be vetted if we are to understand space power with the kind of clarity with which we now understand air power and if we are to understand their nexus[35]. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[36]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[37]. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[38] The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[39]. Air and Space relationship The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[40] The move from earth to space transitsis through the air environment, thereby inherently bringing about a linkage as no space launch or recovery can take place without transiting through the air medium. Any differentiation between the two would be superficial and indefinable. In future, the air and space mediums would provide a seamless environment where Trans Atmospheric Vehicles (TAVs) and re-usable hypersonic vehicles could exploit it freely. In addition, with increas ed proliferation of Ballistic Missiles and development of potent nuclear warheads, there is a need to extend the current Air Defence capabilities to space to ensure that the threats emanating from the air and space environment can be effectively tackled.[41] While the physical borders between the land, sea and air are readily evident, the physical border between air and space is not as clear. The atmosphere gradually disappears and space gradually starts. Furthermore, from a physical point of view, earths entire connection to space is through the atmosphere. Every movement into space begins with movement through air. Thus, from a physical point of view, space is linked with air.[42] Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[43] Space assets are differentiated from air platforms by being non-air breathing. Military force includes all of the civilian elements such as contractor support that are required to sustain air or space operations.[44] It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[45] The answers to these questions will drive the future direction the military takes in space. Fundamentally influencing these answers is the militarys organizationally held perceptions of the air and space environment itself. The militarys view of this environment not only shapes the role the military sees for itself in space, but affects how it develops space forces necessary to support that role.[46] CHAPTER III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[47] Space has provided us with huge capability because of its reach and ubiquity. The roles and applications of Space range widely from direct military roles of using it as a platform to launch weapons or support role of enhancing the capabilities of human beings in both military and civil field. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, the sensor like satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[48] Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are prepared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors[49]. Supporting Role Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and navigation by global positioning system (GPS) satellites. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites had already been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[50]. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these and so many more things, reality. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. Operation Desert Storm is considered as the first space war, however the supporting role of space like providing near real time data from communicati on and meteorological satellites, was present during the war in Vietnam also. The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the â€Å"first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support.† [51] The support provided by the space based operations has enhanced the military capabilities drastically such that these operations have become inseparable part of every military operation. Some of these roles have been described as under: (a) Communication Satellites Communicating with deployed forces has always presented the military commanders with a problem. This is especially true in todays fast moving world when troops may have to be deployed anywhere in the world at a very short notice. The orbit used by communication satellite is the geostationary orbit. Three of Development of Space Power in India Development of Space Power in India SPACE POWER- A FORCE MULTIPLIER â€Å"The vastness of space is a key factor in the war-form of the future† Alvin Heidi Toffler[1] CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Space has always been a matter of great interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. The space warfare is as old as Indian mythology. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[2]. In the 17th century, astronomers pointed a new device called the telescope at the heavens and made startling discoveries[3]. On 03 Oct 1942, German scientists launched an A-4 rocket, which travelled a distance of 190 km and reached an altitude of over 80 km. Orbital operations started with Soviet Sputnik-1 satellite in 1957[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[5] Since then, the utilisation of space has been a matter of debate and controversies as far as direct war fighting military roles and missions are concerned. However, the support operations like Intelligence, communication and reconnaissance, which came first, did not face much of resistance. The benefits possible from the space-based support operations were realised very quickly and these operations were extended further to surveillance, mapping, navigation, ground mapping, environmental monitoring etc. Space systems have brought better intelligence and stronger defences by enabling the collection of new types of data and information; significantly increasing communications capabilities and capacities; revolutionizing precision navigation and timing; enriching science; establishing new markets; providing safer air, land, and sea transportation; and enabling faster disaster relief as well as more effective civil planning[6]. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[7] Also Knowledge is the purest form of power and is the reason that overhead surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence-gathering efforts are so important in both war and peace. Information delivered from above can be used to strengthen a friendly regime, discredit an enemy regime, or directly attack the morale of an adversarys frontline troops. They can detect missile launches, nuclear tests and they can provide secure real time communications all over the world. The resolution available with satellite reconnaissance is more than adequate for military needs. The accuracy of GPS is known to us all. In le ss hostile circumstances, the information might consist of humanitarian warnings about impending natural disasters or news about disaster-relief efforts[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Com munications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. In Indias context which has belligerent neighbours, space based capabilities are the definite force multiplier. In fact, military strategist call space the new ‘High Ground. Which will bring in revolutionary changes in military affairs. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[11] Space begins where satellites can maintain orbit (81 miles) and extends to infinity.[12] Power is control or authority to influence; the ability to produce an act or event.[13] And Space power is a nations ability to exploit and control the space medium to support and achieve national goals.[14] Gravity The driving force behind all orbital dynamics is the force of gravity and is defined by the law of universal Gravitation given by Isaac Newton in 1687. It states â€Å" Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particle†.[15] Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[16] Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between the orbital plane of the satellite and the plane of the Earths equator. BY convention, it is measured anticlockwise from the equator to the orbital plane at the point where the satellite crosses, passing to north[17]. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as ‘polar orbits. ‘Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are ‘inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ‘ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be ‘seen by satelli te sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. Orbital Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to ‘decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[18] Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. Sun Synchronous orbit It is the orbit where in the satellite is used for surveillance at optical wave length and whose orbital motion will bring it periodically over the same area of interest at the same sunlight conditions from day to day. These orbital planes are called as Sun Synchronous orbit[19]. These are low earth orbits inclined at about 98 °. Semi-synchronous Orbit. This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. Molniya Orbit. This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[20] Geostationary Satellite As the orbital height increases, so orbital period increases. If the orbital height increases to 35875km, the orbital period will be synchronised with the rotation rate of the Earth. Such a satellite would be called a geosynchronous satellite. If these satellite have zero degree of inclination such that these satellites will appear stationary in the sky over a point on the equator to an observer on earth. Such a satellite would be called a geostationary satellite[21]. This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small ‘ of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. Geosynchronous Orbit has li ttle military or other uses because of its large ‘ of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term ‘geostationary, is tending to be replaced by ‘geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a ‘strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[22] Super-synchronous Orbit. The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[23] (a) Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[24]. It is through this zone that ballistic missiles must proceed during and after their boost phase and are most vulnerable to antiballistic missile (ABM) systems. However, minimum long-range effects from nuclear explosions are found at altitudes between 50 and 150 kilometers: above 50 kilometers, the mechanical effects of shockwave pressures almost disappear as a consequence of the relatively low air density; below 150 kilometers, the air density is still high enough to reduce the range of corpuscular radiation through di spersion and absorption so that the long-range thermal effect is also not maximum.[25] Therefore, even very powerful nuclear devises in the megaton range must be detonated at relatively close proximity to their intended target at NEO to be effective, although electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects could seriously disrupt unhardened electronic systems at long-range distances. Nevertheless, targets at NEO, compared to those at higher gravity well zones, are relatively vulnerable to Earth-based intervention because of an inherently short warning time available for the implementation of countermeasures and the minimal amount of energy that the enemy must expend to reach this zone. Conversely, a weapon system such as a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) at NEO could attack targets on Earth with a minimum of warning[26]. (b) (c) The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[27]. (d) (e) LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. (f) (g) The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[28] Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[29]. The difference between space and the outer space is generally not recognised. But the former term is wider than the latter and means the whole universe including the earth while outer space means all spaces other than the earth. In fact, outer space begins where the earths atmosphere ends and extends on in all directions infinitely. The upper limit of the air space constitutes the lowest limit of outer space. The outer space in a broader sense also consists of the entire space beyond celestial bodies and their atmosphere. Celestial bodies include all land masses in space and their atmosphere except Earth. Therefore, air space is excluded from outer space. The diff erence between space and outer space is insignificant in so far as the exploration and use of such domain is concerned[30]. (h) The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[31]. (i) (j) During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[32]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[33] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two distin ct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[34] There are few of these set of fundamental issues which require to be vetted if we are to understand space power with the kind of clarity with which we now understand air power and if we are to understand their nexus[35]. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[36]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[37]. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[38] The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[39]. Air and Space relationship The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[40] The move from earth to space transitsis through the air environment, thereby inherently bringing about a linkage as no space launch or recovery can take place without transiting through the air medium. Any differentiation between the two would be superficial and indefinable. In future, the air and space mediums would provide a seamless environment where Trans Atmospheric Vehicles (TAVs) and re-usable hypersonic vehicles could exploit it freely. In addition, with increas ed proliferation of Ballistic Missiles and development of potent nuclear warheads, there is a need to extend the current Air Defence capabilities to space to ensure that the threats emanating from the air and space environment can be effectively tackled.[41] While the physical borders between the land, sea and air are readily evident, the physical border between air and space is not as clear. The atmosphere gradually disappears and space gradually starts. Furthermore, from a physical point of view, earths entire connection to space is through the atmosphere. Every movement into space begins with movement through air. Thus, from a physical point of view, space is linked with air.[42] Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[43] Space assets are differentiated from air platforms by being non-air breathing. Military force includes all of the civilian elements such as contractor support that are required to sustain air or space operations.[44] It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[45] The answers to these questions will drive the future direction the military takes in space. Fundamentally influencing these answers is the militarys organizationally held perceptions of the air and space environment itself. The militarys view of this environment not only shapes the role the military sees for itself in space, but affects how it develops space forces necessary to support that role.[46] CHAPTER III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[47] Space has provided us with huge capability because of its reach and ubiquity. The roles and applications of Space range widely from direct military roles of using it as a platform to launch weapons or support role of enhancing the capabilities of human beings in both military and civil field. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, the sensor like satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[48] Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are prepared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors[49]. Supporting Role Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and navigation by global positioning system (GPS) satellites. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites had already been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[50]. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these and so many more things, reality. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. Operation Desert Storm is considered as the first space war, however the supporting role of space like providing near real time data from communicati on and meteorological satellites, was present during the war in Vietnam also. The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the â€Å"first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support.† [51] The support provided by the space based operations has enhanced the military capabilities drastically such that these operations have become inseparable part of every military operation. Some of these roles have been described as under: (a) Communication Satellites Communicating with deployed forces has always presented the military commanders with a problem. This is especially true in todays fast moving world when troops may have to be deployed anywhere in the world at a very short notice. The orbit used by communication satellite is the geostationary orbit. Three of